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Heavy Molecular and Metallic Ions in the Magnetosphere

Yamauchi, M.; Wurz, P.; Dandouras, I. +11 more

Observations and present knowledge of heavy ions with mass ≥ 27 in the magnetosphere are reviewed. There are four ultimate sources of these heavy ions: the solar wind (mainly high charge-state atomic ions), the ionosphere (mainly molecular ions), the atmospheric metal layers that originate ultimately from ablation of meteoroids and possibly space …