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Nonequilibrium Processes in the Solar Corona, Transition Region, Flares, and Solar Wind (Invited Review)

Krucker, Säm; Meyer-Vernet, Nicole; Del Zanna, Giulio +12 more

We review the presence and signatures of the non-equilibrium processes, both non-Maxwellian distributions and non-equilibrium ionization, in the solar transition region, corona, solar wind, and flares. Basic properties of the non-Maxwellian distributions are described together with their influence on the heat flux as well as on the rates of indivi…