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Clathrate Hydrates of Oxidants in the Ice Shell of Europa

Hand, Kevin P.; Carlson, Robert W.; Cooper, John F. +1 more

Europa's icy surface is radiolytically modified by high-energy electrons and ions, and photolytically modified by solar ultraviolet photons. Observations from the Galileo Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer, ground-based telescopes, the International Ultraviolet Explorer, and the Hubble Space Telescope, along with laboratory experiment results, ind…